Since I still couldn’t find the reason that caused the code to break, I found another solution instead.
Luckily for me, both images are the same, but the desktop one has the height property “small” while the mobile one has the property “fit to image”.
I removed one banner, kept the one with the small property and added this to the Custom CSS, to sorta “change” the property on mobile:
@media (max-width: 749px) {
.banner__content {
height: 100%;
}
}